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Article |
Obstáculos en la
comprensión y retención: un análisis integral de los factores que influye en el
aprendizaje estudiantil
Washington David Ramos Reyes[*]
Abstract
The study addresses the problem of the obstacles that
affect the comprehension and retention of learning in students inside and
outside the classroom, offering an analysis of the various factors that affect
this educational process. Through a review, both internal elements, such as
students' cognitive and emotional abilities, and external factors, including
the surrounding educational and social environment, are examined, each element
is analyzed to understand its individual impact and its interaction with other
components. Multiple variables that contribute to these barriers are
identified, highlighting the importance of understanding the complex
interaction between these factors in order to design effective strategies that
promote optimal student learning. The research seeks to provide a holistic
understanding of the challenges faced by students in their learning process,
also to inspire the creation of innovative and effective educational
interventions that promote optimal learning for all students, regardless of
their individual circumstances, recognizing the diversity of factors that may
influence their ability to comprehend and retain information in the
instructional process.
Keywords: Critical comprehension, information retention,
student teaching, learning disabilities, teaching methods, academic
environment.
Resumen
El estudio
aborda la problemática de los obstáculos que afectan la comprensión y retención
del aprendizaje en estudiantes dentro y fuera del aula, ofreciendo un análisis
de los diversos factores que inciden en este proceso educativo. A través de una
revisión, se examinan tanto los elementos internos, como las habilidades
cognitivas y emocionales de los estudiantes, como los factores externos,
incluyendo el entorno educativo y social que los rodea, cada elemento es
analizado para comprender su impacto individual y su interacción con otros
componentes. Se identifican múltiples variables que contribuyen a estos
obstáculos, destacando la importancia de comprender la interacción compleja
entre dichos factores para diseñar estrategias efectivas que promuevan un aprendizaje
óptimo para el estudiante. La investigación busca proporcionar una comprensión
holística de los desafíos que enfrentan los estudiantes en su proceso de
aprendizaje, también inspirar la creación de intervenciones educativas
innovadoras y efectivas que promuevan un aprendizaje óptimo para todos los
estudiantes, independientemente de sus circunstancias individuales,
reconociendo la diversidad de factores que pueden influir en su capacidad para
comprender y retener la información en el proceso de enseñanza.
Palabras
clave: Comprensión
crítica, retención de información, enseñanza estudiantil, dificultad en el
aprendizaje, métodos de enseñanza, ambiente académico.
Introduction
Effective comprehension and retention of study
material are fundamental aspects of the student learning process,
however, various obstacles can interfere with this crucial process. In
academia, a thorough understanding of the factors that influence students'
ability to assimilate and retain information is of paramount importance, as
this can have a significant impact on their academic performance and cognitive
development. This changed as advances in the psychology of learning took place,
for example, association, which for Gagné (1970) “is
the simplest form of learned abilities, and which constitutes the foundation of
other more complex types of those same abilities”, went from a relationship
between ideas to links between stimuli and responses. Therefore, this study
focuses on an analysis of the various elements that constitute barriers to
comprehension and retention, in order to provide a comprehensive view of this
phenomenon.
The analysis of barriers to student learning
comprehension and retention requires a multidimensional approach that considers
both internal and external factors that influence this process. From the
internal perspective, aspects such as students' cognitive abilities, their
learning styles, as well as emotional factors that may influence their ability
to process information effectively are explored. On the other hand, external
factors are examined, such as the educational environment, teaching methods, access
to educational resources and socioeconomic conditions, which also play a
crucial role in learning comprehension and retention. In the early forms of the
child's language learning, the parent extends his or her elocutions in such a
way as to match his or her grammar and does not allow the child to discover as
he or she is constantly presented with a model, regarding this Bruner (1974,
122) notes; “Within culture, the first form of learning essential for a person
to become human is not discovery, but having a model. The constant presence of
models and the constant response to the individual's successive responses, in a
continuous two-person exchange, constitutes discovery learning guided by an
accessible model”.
By identifying and analyzing the factors that
influence the comprehension and retention of study material, we seek to
contribute to the development of effective educational strategies adapted to
the individual needs of students, with the ultimate goal of improving the
quality and impact of education at all academic levels.
Materials and methods
To conduct this literature review study on barriers
to comprehension and retention in student learning, an academic literature
search was conducted using electronic databases specialized in education,
psychology and pedagogy. Relevant search terms such as “comprehension,”
“retention,” “student learning,” “barriers,” among others, were used to
identify relevant studies published in scientific journals, books, technical
reports, and other scholarly resources.
Multiple academic databases, including PubMed, PsycINFO, ERIC, Scopus, and Web
of Science, were searched extensively to ensure literature review.
Institutional repositories, digital libraries, and websites of relevant
educational and governmental organizations were also consulted for supplemental
information.
Once the relevant documents were collected, a
literature selection and classification process was
carried out, where the most relevant studies were identified and organized
according to specific themes and sub-themes related to barriers to student
learning comprehension and retention. A critical analysis of the selected
papers was conducted to extract key information and synthesize the findings in
a systematic way. In order to write a detailed report that included a
comprehensive review of the literature, summarizing the main findings,
identifying trends and discrepancies in the research, and suggesting areas of
interest for future research in this field.
Results
In discovery learning, knowledge is not presented in
a complete form; rather, the learner must reconstruct it, whether following a
model or not, before meaningfully internalizing it into his or her cognitive
structure. Other authors offer their perspectives on this approach, such as
Glaser (1974), who focuses on the data and specifications of the development of
procedures and materials. His operational plan includes several tasks:
analyzing behavior and specifying a model considering individual differences,
defining student characteristics prior to instruction, guiding the learner in
their development and anticipating motivational effects, and preparing to
measure and evaluate the competence achieved.
In discovery learning, one seeks to “discover” a taught rule, concept or
association, which differs from the discovery method itself. In this process,
induction plays an important role in moving from the particular to the general,
and the learner's understanding is verified by verbalizing the general property
or providing another example. On the other hand, Shulman and Keislar (1974, p. 41) point out that “the discovery process
can result from both inductive and deductive teachings.”
In this type of learning, the probability of
obtaining correct answers is low, since it is based mainly on trial and error,
including negative cases, among others. For this reason, Wittrock (1974) argues
that discovery is not the ideal approach if evaluated in terms of retention,
transfer, activity and time. Furthermore, Wittrock argues that discovery
learning is valuable in itself, as it develops the ability to discover,
especially when combined with verbal information. According to him, teaching
problem solving inductively and scientifically is crucial to students'
development toward maturity.
For those who do not favor discovery learning, such as Glaser (1974), this
method boils down to a structured instructional sequence, in contrast to a less
guided sequence where the individual adds his or her own structure. Glaser
suggests that it is more effective to gain benefits from the experiences of
others to avoid wasted time or demotivation in trying to solve problems.
Gagné (1970, p. 2) defines learning as “a change in
human dispositions or capacities, which persists over a period of time and
which is not attributable to growth processes alone”. This approach recognizes
the human being as an active processor of information, as opposed to
behaviorism, where the human being was considered passive and receptive.
The information processing theory postulates that
learning involves the interaction between the variables of the subject and the
environment. It is based on the analogy between the human mind and the
functioning of computers, investigating how information is encoded,
transformed, stored, retrieved and transmitted.
The principles of Gagné's theory are based on the
information processing model, which consists of phases from the stimulation of
the receptors to the feedback that accompanies the subject's execution. These
phases are supported by external stimuli that facilitate internal processes and
promote learning.
This model makes it possible to orient learning
toward specific goals and to plan it intentionally, including the acquisition
of skills. Gagné integrates elements of behaviorism,
such as reinforcement and task analysis, as well as concepts from Ausubel's information processing and intrinsic motivation
theories to provide a solid foundation for instructional planning. Table 1
summarizes the outlines of learning according to Gagné's
theory.
In addition, Morley and Robins (1995) propose that
the media play an important role in the formation of social identity,
especially the global media, as they provide cultural models that influence the
way people think and behave. Electronic technology, such as the Internet, has
transformed the way social identities are constructed. New communication
technologies are creating electronic spaces that allow individuals to construct
their identities more fluidly and without boundaries.
In general, the authors agree that communication is
fundamental for the construction of social identity. Communication enables the
transmission of common meanings and values that allow us to understand the
world around us and define who we are in relation to others. In addition, the
media and new technologies are playing an increasingly important role in the
construction of social identity, as they influence the adoption of values and
messages by individuals.
Learning is an individual process that begins before
birth and continues throughout life, progressively. In this process, the
subject is fully involved, making use of his or her cognitive processes,
emotions and personality. According to Serrano (1990, p. 53), learning is an
active activity in which attention, memory, imagination and reasoning play a
fundamental role. The learner elaborates and assimilates the knowledge he/she
acquires, incorporating it into his/her mind in defined and coordinated structures.
Learning is conceived as an activity in which the
individual learns spontaneously, through a set of interconnected, living and
acting operations, rather than simply accumulating content. The teacher must
interpret the content in terms of these operations, which are the basis of the
notions that are intended to be taught. Although the child learns naturally
through discovery in the early stages of life, in the school environment
knowledge is mediated by the teacher, who must motivate the child during instruction.
Active learning involves interaction with the
environment and with other people, either individually or in groups, and
requires cooperation or collaboration. These interactions generate experiences
that modify the child's present and future behavior, since behavioral
dispositions and the environment are not separate entities, but interact with
each other. Bandura (1982) points out that personal and environmental
determinants are potentialities that require activation to operate.
As the subject learns, he becomes capable of
transforming his environment through a dialectical relationship, which in turn
facilitates further learning. Socialized activities are beneficial for
intellectual development, since they generate conflicts, different points of
view and new problems to be solved. This implies that the group retains its
differences once the points of view of each member have been justified.
Teaching is understood as a communicative process
involving an exchange of information between teachers and students, according
to Zabalza (1990). Stenhouse (1991, p. 53) defines it as the strategies adopted
by the school to plan and organize children's learning, emphasizing that it
goes beyond mere instruction, since it seeks to systematically promote learning
through various means.
In our conception, teaching is a socio-communicative and cognitive activity
that dynamizes meaningful learning in diverse environments, such as the
classroom, the virtual classroom or global spaces, in a synchronous or
asynchronous manner. It is essential to understand that teaching has no meaning
if it does not generate learning, as indicated by Zabalza
(1990), since its didactic meaning is found in its relationship with the
learning process, which is not limited to the classroom or occurs only in
direct interactions between two people.
In current teaching-learning environments, the
debate on the usefulness of the different theories is reopened and integrative
models that take advantage of the benefits of each current are proposed. De
Pablos and Colás (1998) suggest reflecting on the
incorporation of new technologies into the educational environment, emphasizing
that their influence should not be limited to technical aspects, but should
affect various human dimensions.
From these integrated teaching models, the teacher makes reflective decisions
on how to approach the various interactions, considering not only the
technological resources available, but also the individual differences of the
students.
It is important to remember that teaching decisions
are not merely technical, but involve value choices, as Ferreres
(1999) points out, and must be based on a deep understanding of educational
practice.
It is essential to recognize that the image of the teacher as a technician is
limited and that research findings cannot solve all teaching problems. From a
heuristic perspective, the teacher is able to diagnose and address practical
curriculum problems, while from a socio-critical approach, communicative action
arises from understanding and agreement within an educational team.
These are just some of the variables that influence the teaching-learning
process, which we will explore through psychological theories to develop
integrative models that harmonize principles and avoid conflicts arising from
their separate application.
Ultimately, the improvement of teaching-learning
processes does not depend only on sophisticated technologies, but on
pedagogically sound proposals supported by integrative models that effectively
take advantage of available technologies.
Two traditional approaches to understanding teaching
have been explored. On the one hand, the associationist approach, which does
not consider mental events in its theories due to the difficulty of observing
and measuring these processes objectively. On the other hand, during the 1950s
and 1960s, the cognitivist approach emerged, which recognizes the individual
interacting with his or her environment through cognitive mental processes.
This approach focuses on the mind, analyzing how the individual receives,
assimilates, stores and remembers information. Some researchers, such as Vielma
and Salas (2000), expanded this perspective to include the influences of the
learning environment, both social, cultural and historical, giving rise to the
constructivist perspective.
These two approaches, the behaviorist and the cognitivist, differ in their
emphasis on the internal and external factors of learning. While the
cognitivist approach pays more attention to the learner's mental processes, the
behaviorist approach focuses more on environmental factors. Although cognitive
learning theories do not provide specific guidance on how to teach, they
identify useful methods for particular situations.
Figure 1. Diagram of the cognitivist pedagogical model (Sarramona, 2000).
As a result, some non-face-to-face modality proposals have emerged, one of
which is presented by Santángelo (2000), which offers both synchronous and
asynchronous operating options, based on the integrated and overlapping use of
two technological platforms: multipoint videoconferencing (VC) through the
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and a virtual campus (VC) in an
Internet content production, distribution and management software.
Figure 2. Model of a non face-to-face teaching system (Santángelo,
2000).
A descriptive overview of some teaching models has been sketched, in a general
way and without claiming to be exhaustive. In this tour, we have explored from
traditional projects, with their advantages and disadvantages, to current
developments that make use of new technologies. Some of these models are still
present in our educational centers, both formal and informal, while others are
still out of reach due to various factors, including inadequate educational
policies or those imported from other contexts, as well as economic
limitations.
Didactic activities, according to Porlán et al. (1988), are characteristic processes of the
classroom-system that involve information flow and processing. These activities
are oriented towards didactic goals, interactive to the extent that they
involve communication between teachers, students and context, and organized in
terms of the amount and type of information, format, transmission channels,
time and treatment process, among other aspects.
These activities allow the subject to practice with
the object of knowledge, thus facilitating cognitive restructuring. It is not
simply a repetition of theory or mechanical memorization, but a reflective
experience on the part of the subject (Gewerc, 2001).
To refer to both teaching and learning activities,
we can use the term “instructional activities”. Those activities that allow us
to guide and adjust the classroom dynamics according to the objectives set and
the methodological strategy employed are known as “regulatory activities”. It
is imperative to integrate inclusive projects as a complement to traditional
educational practices, given their potential to enrich the conditions offered
by the school environment (Medina, 2021; Villarreal et al., 2021). Specifically,
these projects play a fundamental role in dissolving prejudices and
apprehensions towards the educational institution by providing new resources,
fostering positive coexistence and eliminating obstacles that may arise
(Fernández, 2015; Medina, 2021). Likewise, they are oriented towards meeting
the individual needs of all students, adapting educational activities in an
inclusive manner (Fernandez, 2015; Medina, 2021). This active integration of
inclusive projects not only promotes a more equitable school environment, but
also strengthens the commitment to diversity and educational excellence.
It is essential that students are aware of the
regulatory activities and participate in the definition of some of them to
promote their responsibility for the proper development of the didactic unit.
These activities should include guidelines to follow in case of eventualities
and promote dialogue with the students to evaluate the classroom climate, the
level of motivation, the difficulty of the activities, among other aspects, in
order to introduce modifications that allow their understanding and improvement.
In addition, these activities (Table 3) also affect the evaluation, since the
synthesis activities at the end of the didactic unit allow us to evaluate the
work done in terms of knowledge, procedures, skills, values and attitudes
assumed (Ander-Egg, 1983).
Evaluation should be considered as a continuous
process of reflection and improvement of the educational practice, starting
from its planning, during its development and at its end. Through evaluation,
not only the amount of information memorized by the students is measured, but
also other dimensions, such as contents, methodology used, means used and the
teacher's attitude. This integral approach implies the participation of all the
protagonists of the educational act (Porlán et al.,
1988).
Diagnostic evaluation identifies the degree of
adequacy of the students' cognitive schemas in relation to the pedagogical
program. Formative evaluation allows for the improvement of both the teaching
program and the teaching process itself, while summative evaluation certifies
whether the educational objectives have been achieved.
It is essential that the evaluation process be
aligned with the selected objectives, the curricular contents and the expected
learning outcomes (Nieda and Macedo, 1997). Students learn and develop to the
extent that they construct meanings around the curricular content presented.
To facilitate student learning, it is necessary to
understand both the logical structure of the discipline and the psychological
structure that students have established among the concepts. In addition, it is
important to observe how students manipulate the teaching materials and apply
the acquired knowledge to assess whether they have achieved the teaching
objectives and whether corrections in the applied methodology are necessary.
The evaluation should be systematized to take
advantage of the information obtained and thus decide how to provide help
adjusted to the construction processes carried out by the students (Díaz
Barriga and Hernández Rojas, 1998).
In conclusion, the discovery learning approach
emphasizes the importance of individuals internalizing knowledge through active
reconstruction, either by following a model or exploring autonomously. Although
this method can promote the development of discovery skills, its effectiveness
in terms of retention, transfer and learning time is questioned by some
authors. However, discovery learning remains valuable for its ability to foster
deep understanding and inductive, scientific problem-solving skills.
On the other hand, the teaching process is seen as a
communicative and cognitive activity that promotes meaningful learning through
various media and environments. Integrated teaching models, which take
advantage of different pedagogical currents and technologies, allow for
intentional planning and flexible adaptation to the individual needs of
students. In addition, assessment is understood as a continuous process of
reflection and improvement that must be aligned with learning objectives and
based on a deep understanding of educational practice.
In summary, both discovery learning and integrated
approaches to teaching and assessment emphasize the importance of an active,
reflective and adaptive process to facilitate students' holistic development
and promote meaningful learning in diverse educational contexts.
In this sense, it has been pointed out that
professional ethics in university education is a fundamental reference; it
implies considering professional values, their application in a reflective and
critical manner; in short, promoting in the student the values of the
profession he/she is going to perform, and his/her commitment to society.
Thus, the first task of teaching will be that the
university student has this basic and fundamental knowledge of what ethics is
for -first- as a science, to immediately understand that professional ethics
serves to cement those values that will serve him in the future, in his actions
as a professional. Complementarily, thanks to the social principles of our University, the law student must also understand that the
profession he has chosen to study has this priority.
In this line, we would agree with Hortal when he proposes the teaching of professional ethics
as “an aid to systematic reflection on the specific service, the main
obligations and the possible ethical conflicts with which those who aspire to
responsibly and lucidly assume the exercise of their profession for the benefit
of society will have to face”. Thus, we must consider the two dimensions
inherent to it. On the one hand, the teleological dimension, i.e., the purpose
or objective of professional practice, and, on the other, the pragmatic
dimension, which, subordinated to the former, relates to the code of ethics.
The latter is proposed as a structured guide to those aspects relating to the
professional's relations with himself/herself, with the institution carrying
out the activity and with society as a whole.
There is no doubt that nowadays, in emerging
societies such as ours, whoever prepares for a future profession, in public universities,
the absorption of this behavioral knowledge is very necessary, since in the
face of an ethical behavior, absent of any principle, such as justice, equity,
will have no excuse for society to point out such acts.
As it can be observed, it is not a simple pedagogical incorporation, as if it
were one more subject, but it must be implemented properly systematized, so
that the student absorbs it in a meridian way.
In this sense, it should also be kept in mind that
for a complete academic formation of a student, it is not only necessary to
have a vast knowledge of the different branches of Law, which includes the
great effort that is materialized by constantly innovating the subjects and
syllabuses according to the world development of this science; such learning
should be guided by the guidelines of conduct of the future professional, and
this is precisely what the implementation of professional ethics as a branch to
be taught is going to deal with.
Also, these proposals for the incorporation of ethics as a subject of study
cannot be ignored from the point of view of our universities, since they have
the moral duty (because they owe it to our society) to form, from the academic
point of view, a professional who not only has a solid knowledge of Law, but
also clear values and an unwavering social conscience.
Finally, bearing in mind what it means (the field of
ethics) the concept that is held in our environment, of the law professional
who graduates, with a kind of prejudice for university study centers such as
ours, also makes it a pragmatic necessity that the preparation of their
students is integrated.
In this context, our proposal, which has been
detailed from the point of view of the generalities in the field of the limits
of professional ethics, also involves the participation of several actors,
including the will of the respective authorities, focusing on the awareness (of
this need) that the teacher must have, to finally reach the student. It is not
a minor undertaking, therefore, it should be carried
out without ignoring the other aspects to be kept in mind.
Through the present analysis carried out in previous
lines, about our sustains on the need in public universities, to impart as a
subject of study, professional ethics, it can be concluded that it is of
convenience and necessity such implementations, since it constitutes for
whoever obtains a university degree from these houses of study, to have a
behavioral tool that only professional ethics is in capacity to give it.
Likewise, the way in which its study has been incorporated comprises -mainly-
of the conviction of its necessity on the part of the respective
authorities.
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