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Assessment of transformational-

transactional leadership of university

teachers

Evaluación de liderazgo transformacional-

transaccional de docentes universitarios

Wilson Geovanny Pesantez Molina

Carlos Patricio Orellana Orellana

Abstract

The aim of this research was to evaluate the transformational-

transactional leadership profile of university teachers at a private

university in Ecuador, adopting Bass and Avolio's leadership model.

The approach of this research was mixed (qualitative and

quantitative), correlational, non-experimental and cross-sectional

design; with a sample of 34 teachers and 86 students, to whom the

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) questionnaires were

applied. The data were processed in the statistical software SPSS

version 19. The analysis of the results shows that the leadership style

that predominates in the teachers from the self-perception and

perception of the students is transformational leadership and is the

one that causes the greatest impact on the outcome variables

(satisfaction, extra effort and effectiveness).

Keywords: Transformational leadership, university leadership,

leadership and satisfaction

Msc. Universidad Católica de Cuenca, Sede La Troncal, La

Troncal, Ecuador., https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0132-1554,

wgpesantezm@ucacue.edu.ec

Msc. Universidad Católica de Cuenca, Sede La Troncal, La

Troncal, Ecuador., https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0958-7253,

corellanao@ucacue.edu.ec

Article

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Resumen

La investigación tuvo como objetivo realizar una evaluación del

perfil de liderazgo transformacional - transaccional en los docentes

universitarios de una universidad privada en Ecuador, adoptando el

modelo de liderazgo de Bass y Avolio. El enfoque de esta

investigación fue mixto (cualitativo y cuantitativo), de tipo

correlacional, diseño no experimental y transversal; con una muestra

de 34 docentes y 86 estudiantes, a quienes se les aplicó los

cuestionarios del Multifactor Leadership Questionaire (MLQ). Los

datos fueron procesados en el programa estadístico informático

SPSS versión 19. El análisis de los resultados demuestra que el

estilo de liderazgo que predominan en los docentes desde la

autopercepción y percepción de los estudiantes es el liderazgo

transformacional y es el que causa mayor impacto en las variables

de resultados (satisfacción, esfuerzo extra y efectividad)

Palabras clave: Liderazgo transformacional, liderazgo

universitario, liderazgo y satisfacción

Introduction

In the Roman Empire, effective leaders were needed to conquer new

lands and defend their territory. Similarly, in the dispute between the

Danes and Saxons, the Danes, also known as Vikings, made

incursions into the territory of the English kingdoms, this dispute

lasted 250 years and in the end the Danes became kings of the

English.

If we analyse the history of kings and their leadership styles we

realise that some leaders were effective and others were not, that

certain leaders had different personality traits from others, but

depending on the context and the situation they had to adopt and

develop certain traits, overcoming their own interests for the

common good of their people.

Thus, a definition of leadership would be the leader's ability to

achieve organisational goals by overcoming his or her own self-

interest. Historical as well as current events make us presume that

people, organisations, require leaders to guide them.

But if the leader is not prepared to lead, he or she will probably have

ineffective results, so researchers have focused on studying this

phenomenon and proposing leadership models that help to achieve

effective leadership.

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One of the models that has been most widely accepted and

scientifically proven is Bass and Avolio's transformational-

transactional leadership model, which will be discussed below.

In the educational context, university teachers must exercise the role

of leader, they must know how to direct and guide their students,

they must fulfil the goal of training competent professionals,

motivate them and stimulate them to exceed their own expectations.

If we think back to our student days, we have surely had teachers

who have left their mark on our lives, either for better or for worse,

depending on what they instilled in us. We have liked certain

subjects and hated others, this affection is possibly due to the

relationship we had with the teacher, we liked the subject if the

teacher was pleasant and charismatic and we hated it if the teacher

was the opposite.

The Pygmalion effect has shown that if a teacher treats a student as

excellent, the result is that the student will be excellent. A study

carried out by Rosenthal and Jacobson in 1966 proved this

hypothesis, an intelligence test was given to all the students and then

the teachers were given the list of the students who had the best

scores, at the end of the experiment the students' scores were

validated and indeed the students who the teachers thought had the

best scores on the test were the ones who performed the best, but

they were the ones who had the best performance, The reality was

that the list of students was chosen at random and no intelligence test

was given, which revealed that the teachers had a tendency to treat

their students as excellent and they ended up being excellent.

The aim of this research was to determine which leadership style

predominates in the teachers of this private university, from two

approaches, the first from the self-perception of the teacher and the

second from the perception of the student, the model adopted and

adapted is the transformational-transactional leadership of Bass and

Avolio. It is also necessary to know the impact of the teachers'

leadership profile on the outcome variables: satisfaction, extra effort

and effectiveness. With this information, universities could create

training plans so that teachers can develop or enhance the leadership

factors that have the greatest positive impact on the dependent

variables. The managers of the different degree courses will be able

to optimise economic resources in terms of training, since by

knowing the most effective leadership style, the economic resources

for training will be efficiently directed.

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The research approach is quantitative, non-experimental, cross-

sectional design, with a correlational scope.

Leadership is the activity of influencing people to voluntarily

commit themselves to the achievement of group objectives (Koontz

& O'Donnel, 1959; Terry, 1960). Leadership is the act of exerting

interpersonal influence in a situation and directing it, through a

process of communication, to the attainment of a specialised goal or

goals (Tannenbaum, et al., 1959).

Leadership is the process in which leaders influence followers and

vice versa, to achieve the objectives of an organisation through

change (Hersey & Ken H. Blanchard, 1984; Lussier & Achua, 2002;

Pesantez Molina, 2015).

Leadership is the ability of a person to influence followers to achieve

goals and in turn convert followers into leaders (Pesantez Molina,

2019).

‘A leader is an individual who leads with excellence to make good

things happen. The main objective is to generate confidence in the

followers and create an exemplary image, where they can imitate the

profile of the leader, so they can achieve success together without

personal interests’ (Baldoni, 2011; Berenstein, 2010).

Research on leadership in education has helped to show that teachers

are more effective when applying leadership theories in the

classroom (Cheng, 1994; Walumba, Wu & Ojode, 2004).

Pounder (2008) in his research on transformational leadership and

student performance evaluation found that teachers who are

perceived by their students as transformational leaders influence

them to give extra effort in the classroom, and that students perceive

their teacher as effective and feel satisfied with their learning.

As we have just reviewed, there are some meanings of leader and

leadership, as well as leadership theories, starting from the great man

or trait theories, following behavioural theories, contingency or

situational theories and transformational leadership, most of the

theories have been conceptually structured without having an

empirical verification to contrast the proposed theory, For example,

the trait theory is not subject to empirical testing and does not

consider behavioural or situational variables, which is why other

theories have emerged, but these new theories also lack empirical

validity.

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Bass' transformational-transactional leadership has had great

acceptance in the study of leadership, since this theoretical model

has been subjected to empirical validity in different organisations

and it has been statistically proven that transformational leadership

increases the performance of followers, as we will analyse later in

this study.

Trait theory

This theory is based on the personal characteristics of the leader.

Individuals such as Nelson Mandela, Steve Jobs, are recognised as

charismatic, courageous, inspirational leaders. Early research on

leadership focused on the personality, physical and intellectual

attributes of leaders. This theoretical approach affirms that leaders

are born and not made.

It is framed within the so-called great man theory that suggests that

certain stable characteristics of people differentiate those who are

considered leaders from those who are not, some of the personal

characteristics of leaders are: intelligence, intuition, persuasiveness

and high levels of energy.

Between 1904 and 1948, researchers conducted more than 100

studies on leadership characteristics, concluding that no single list of

characteristics could be defined and inferred to be effective

leadership. By the mid-1970s, a more balanced view emerged,

finding certain characteristics to be potentially useful, such as: drive,

motivation, integrity, self-confidence and business savvy (Bateman

& Snell, 2009).

When researchers began to organise the traits based on the Big Five

personality theory: extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,

emotional stability, openness to experience. Most of the dozens of

traits described in the research fit into one of them, thus giving strong

support to traits as predictors of leadership (Robbins & Judge, 2013).

Traits are more useful for predicting the emergence of leaders and

the form of leadership than for indicating the difference between

effective and ineffective leaders; the fact that an individual possesses

the characteristics necessary to lead and is identified as a leader by

followers does not necessarily mean that the leader is successful,

which is why this theory did not have much impact.

New personality traits and physical characteristics are continuously

appearing, which creates confusion in the studies of traits, leadership

will not depend only on the traits of the leader but on the situation,

for this reason it cannot be explained why some leaders, although

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intelligent and with emotional maturity, are not effective; what is

clear is that effective leaders are different from other people and need

to have the right combination of traits to be more likely to be

effective (Hill, Gibson, Ivancevich, Donelly, & Konopaske, 2007).

By way of commentary, this body of theory can be synthesised that

certain leader traits are predictive of effective leadership in

followers. But this theoretical approach has not had a great impact

on the academic and organisational environment due to the diversity

of its findings, which makes it difficult to synthesise each of the traits

and be able to infer the results to enhance effective leadership, so it

is possible that this was the cause for researchers to take a step

towards researching the leader's behaviours.

Behavioural theories

In order to establish the criteria for behavioural theories, the first step

was to consider the failures of early trait studies, which led

researchers from the late 1940s to the 1960s to question whether

there was something unique about the behaviour of effective leaders.

Trait theory helps us select the right leader, but behavioural theories

of leadership indicated that it was possible to train people to become

leaders.

This type of leadership considers two factors: task-oriented: they tell

their followers how to do the job, define roles, structure; and people-

oriented: they have consideration for their follower, trust, mutual

respect, warmth.

Within the behavioural theories, the following contributions stand

out: a) studies by the University of Ohio, b) studies by the University

of Michigan and c) the management grid by Blake and Mounton

(Blake & Mounton, 1964).

To sum up, this body of theory can be summarised by saying that

certain behaviours of the leader are the prediction for exercising

effective leadership in followers and achieving organisational

objectives by increasing their level of performance (Zevallos

Peñalva & Gutiérrez Vásquez, 2023).

However, this theoretical approach has been flawed by focusing its

research only on the leader's individual behaviours and considering

that leadership is effective when leaders always behave with an

adequate combination of behaviours and without considering other

variables, such as the situation. These other variables could intervene

in the relationship of the leader's behavioural variables in a

mediating or moderating way.

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This limitation of variables and their relationships in Blake and

Mounton's model could be the reason for the inconsistencies in the

empirical results observed in practice. In turn, these inconsistencies

might invite leadership experts to look for the effectiveness sought

in other models.

Contingency or situational theories

Referring to the contributions and limitations of the researchers who

have explored the issue Robbins & Judge, (2013) state:

When researchers studied situational influences, they observed that

in condition a, leadership style x would be most appropriate, while

style ‘y’ would be best for condition b, and style z for condition c.

But what were conditions a, b and c?

The most representative models are: Tannenbaum and Schmidt's

democratic authoritarian model, the Fiedler Model (Fiedler &

Chemers, 1974), Reddin's three-dimensional model, the situational

theory, the path-to-goal theory and the leader involvement model.

Situational theories are difficult to subject to rigorous empirical

testing, on the whole they present certain restrictions. The empirical

results have not been consistent enough to support the hypotheses

put forward.

Transformational-Transactional Leadership

One of the most studied and empirically tested leadership styles is

transformational-transactional leadership. Its main precursor is

Bernard M. Bass (1985) who built on the original studies of James

Mac Gregor Burns (1978). Most transformational and charismatic

leadership theories consider both leader traits and behaviours as well

as situational variables, resulting in a more comprehensive analysis

than traditional approaches.

James Mac Gregor Burns was the researcher who introduced the

concepts of transformational (TFL) and transactional (TTSC)

leadership. Transformational leaders are those who stimulate and

inspire their followers to achieve extraordinary results and in the

process develop their own leadership capabilities.

Transformational leadership is related to the relationship-oriented

behavioural style as the leader cares about his or her staff and

transactional leadership is related to the task-oriented behavioural

style, because of the reward the leader gives to the follower by

accomplishing the given task. Transformational leaders help

followers grow and develop into leaders by responding to the

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individual needs of followers, empowering them and aligning the

goals and objectives of the followers, the leader, the group and the

organisation.

Empirical evidence has shown that transformational leadership can

exceed follower performance expectations and group and

organisational commitment (Bass, 1985; Ahmad Saifuddin, 2020;

Alwali & Alwali, 2022). Transformational leadership involves

inspiring followers to achieve organisational goals by challenging

them to be innovative problem solvers and to exceed their own

expectations.

A criticism concerning these transformational and charismatic

leadership theories implies that many refer to the dark side of

charisma, charismatic leaders used their skills to motivate their

followers to perform activities that cause harm to humanity (Chen,

Song, Wei, & Wang, 2024), such as Adolf Hitler, Osama Bin Laden,

but these leaders are called pseudo-transformational, they exhibit

many elements of transformational leadership, but have personal

motives of exploitation and self-aggrandisement.

For Burns (1978), transformational leadership is the opposite of

transactional leadership. In this sense, Bass (1985) states that leaders

exhibit both transformational and transactional leadership

behaviours, both types of leadership can manifest in the same

individual, but in different intensities. In his initial research with US

military personnel, Bass conducted an exploratory factor analysis of

the data obtained, resulting in three components or factors of

transformational leadership: inspirational charisma, intellectual

stimulation and individual consideration.

The sociologist Max Weber conceptualised charisma as a certain

quality in the personality of an individual, which sets him apart from

ordinary people and causes him to be considered as a being endowed

with extraordinary powers or qualities. The individual who has these

qualities is considered a leader. Weber argued that charismatic

leadership was one of several ideal types of authority (Weber, 1947).

In later transformational leadership research, Bass subdivided the

inspirational charisma factor into three factors: idealised attribute

influence, idealised behavioural influence and inspirational

motivation. Transformational leadership is a construct-type variable

as it is measured through indicators or factors.

The total rank model of transformational-transactional leadership,

measured with the multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ),

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implies that each leader shows a frequency of both transactional and

transformational factors, but each leader's profile involves more of

one and less of the other. Those leaders who are more satisfying to

their followers and who are more effective as leaders are more

transformational and less transactional as indicated by Avolio and

Bass (1991) cited by (Bass, 1998).

The factors that form the transactional leadership construct are:

contingent reward, management by active exception and

management by passive exception.

Contingent Reward: The leader rewards followers for their efforts,

thus managing to motivate employees with a salary reward to

perform their respective activities with good performance.

Active management by exception: The leader closely inspects the

movements of his followers, makes sure that they do not deviate

from the established rules, verifies that there are no errors in their

work performance and takes the necessary measures to be able to

immediately repair any faults.

Management by passive exception: The leader only acts when there

are serious deviations that cannot be solved easily, only then does he

or she appear to take action to solve the problem.

The factors that form the construct of transformational leadership

are: idealised influence (attribute and behaviour), inspirational

motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration.

Idealised influence (attribute): A leader's ability to influence his or

her followers, becoming a role model, distinguished by personal

characteristics that make the follower want to emulate him or her.

Idealised influence (behaviour): It is the ability of a leader to

influence the behaviour of his followers as a consequence of the

behaviour adopted by the leader. ethics.

Inspirational Motivation: The leader has the ability to motivate

followers, create in them a beneficial vision, encourage them to

strive to achieve what is expected, encourage change with

enthusiasm and commitment.

Intellectual stimulation: Leaders encourage their followers to be

creative, innovative, debate hypotheses, deal with unexpected

situations wisely. Followers can suggest ideas, ask questions, and try

new approaches.

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Individual Consideration: The leader cares about the situation and

examines the needs of individual employees to direct their intellect.

Followers see their leader as a coach who directs, supports, listens,

communicates, and provides challenges and opportunities to

stimulate their development’.

Transformational-transactional leadership has been related to

outcome variables such as satisfaction, extra effort and effectiveness,

these variables can be measured with the same MLQ instrument.

Satisfaction: The leader performs actions that produce gratification

in the work team. Followers consider the decisions made by the

leaders to be correct and feel great.

Extra effort: The leader performs actions that produce greater

cooperation from the employees in terms of better performance in

their tasks. Followers participate in whatever the leader is willing to

do.

Effectiveness: Leaders carry out actions that produce the

achievement of the objectives and goals of the followers, that is to

say that the employees perform in the best way to achieve the

objectives set’. (Mendoza Martínez, et al., 2012).

For this research, the transformational-transactional leadership

theory of total rank of the author Bernard Bass is adopted.

Materials and methods

The research has a quantitative approach with a non-experimental

design, cross-sectional and correlational scope. The unit of analysis

are the teachers and students of the private university at the La

Troncal campus, the sample is made up of 34 teachers and 88

students of the law, business engineering and accounting

engineering careers, for the collection of information the respective

authorisation was requested from the directors of each career. In the

case of students, those who were 50% advanced in their degree were

considered for the sample because they have a greater knowledge of

the behaviour and characteristics of teachers when teaching classes.

The online surveys were applied, the measurement instrument is the

MLQ adapted to the Ecuadorian context by Pesantez (2019), two

versions of the instrument were made, one version to survey teachers

under their self-perception and another version to apply it to

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students. We proceeded with the calculation of the reliability and

validity of the measurement instrument, giving cronbach's alpha

values above 0.90.

The research hypotheses are: 1) Transformational leadership has a

significant impact on the outcome variables satisfaction, extra effort

and effectiveness, and 2) Transformational leadership is the

predominant leadership style among the teachers investigated. The

statistical software Spss version 19 was used to test the hypotheses.

Results

Of the 34 teachers surveyed, 27 are male and 7 are female, all are

over 30 years old, 33 teachers have a master's degree and 1 has a

doctorate degree. Of the 86 students surveyed, 52 are male and 34

are female.

To test the first research hypothesis, multivariate multiple regression

analysis is used. When transformational-transactional leadership

was regressed on the satisfaction variable, an R2 of 0.91 was

obtained, with individual consideration and idealised influence as

predictors. With the variable extra effort, an R2 of 0.97 was obtained,

with inspirational motivation, management by active exception and

individual consideration as predictors. With the effectiveness

variable, an R2 of 0.91 was determined, with inspirational

motivation and contingent reward as predictors.

According to the statistical results obtained, the transformational

leadership factors such as individual consideration and inspirational

motivation have the greatest significant impact on the outcome

variables: satisfaction, extra effort and effectiveness, and the

transactional leadership factors such as contingent reward and

management by active exception have a lesser impact on the

variables extra effort and effectiveness.

In order to contrast the second research hypothesis, a descriptive

analysis of confidence intervals was carried out both from the

teachers‘ self-perception and from the students’ perception.

From the teachers' perception, the following means were obtained in

hierarchical order: inspirational motivational 18.21; intellectual

stimulation 18.09; idealised influence attribute 17.79; idealised

influence behaviour 17.59; individual consideration 17.24;

contingent reward 16.74; administration by actic exception 16.68

and administration by passive exception 7.50.

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From the perception of the students, the following mean results were

obtained in hierarchical order: inspirational motivation 13.44;

intellectual stimulation 13.30; idealised attribute influence 13.12;

idealised behavioural influence 12.99; individual consideration

12.67; administration by active exception 12.19; contingent reward

11.52; and administration by passive exception 10.0.

Discussion

According to the statistical results obtained, the leadership profile

that predominates in university teachers is transformational

leadership, from both teachers‘ and students’ perceptions, with the

difference that teachers perceive themselves to be more

transformational than students do.

The results of this study show how transformational leadership is

related to the variables satisfaction, extra effort and effectiveness,

this relationship is significant only in the factors individual

consideration, inspirational motivation and idealised influence in

contrast to transactional leadership that only the factor contingent

reward and management by active exception is positively related to

effectiveness and extra effort respectively.

Teachers have behaviour aligned to transformational leadership and

in the same way students perceive them as transformational, which

increases student satisfaction with the teacher's leadership style and

they are motivated to go the extra mile, leading to greater

effectiveness in meeting learning objectives.

To increase student satisfaction, teachers should increase their

transformational behaviour in the variables: Individual

Consideration and Idealised Influence (attribute), because these are

the ones that have the greatest impact on the outcome variable:

satisfaction, and in such a way they would be the most predominant

in order to obtain greater satisfaction.

In order to increase the degree of student effort, teachers should

increase their transformational behaviour in the factors: motivational

inspiration, management by active exception and individual

consideration, because these factors have a positive and significant

impact on the extra effort variable.

And if it comes to effectiveness, teachers should increase their

transformational behaviour in the factors: motivational inspiration

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and contingent reward, because these are the factors that

significantly impact the effectiveness variable.

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